I recently finished Leo Tolstoy’s What is Art?, and it got me thinking about how he would view art today. In this post, I’m exploring two Australian painters, and my own work, through Tolstoy's eyes. I’ll explore why Tolstoy thought 19th-century fine art had lost its way, what he suggested to fix it, and then compare two Australian artists: Tom Roberts, who he probably would have approved of, and Rupert Bunny, who he likely wouldn’t have. Finally, I’ll reflect on whether Tolstoy would have approved of one of my own paintings.
Tolstoy on Art: A Quick Introduction
Leo Tolstoy was born into a landed noble family in Russia. He didn’t take much to formal studies at Kazan University and wasn’t keen on running the family estate, so he ended up joining the army for a number of years (Baldwin et al., 2001). He was already writing during this time, and after leaving the army he married and settled into a fairly comfortable life back at the family estate. He went on to write War and Peace between 1865 and 1869, and Anna Karenina from 1875 to 1877.
In the late 1870s, Tolstoy went through something of a spiritual crisis and came to embrace a form of Christian anarchism. This wasn’t about rebellion for its own sake, his version was non-violent, pacifist, and anti-institutional, focused on living a moral and spiritual life rather than following the rules of the state or organised religion (Woollard, 2025).
During this time, Tolstoy became disillusioned with the fine art of his era, which led him to write a manifesto called What is Art?, a work that took him 15 years to complete (Baldwin, 2001). In it, he explains why he thinks art had lost its way and shares his ideas for how to put it back on track. Parts of the work were first published in March 1898 in Voprosy filosofii psikhologii.
Figure 1: Portrait of Tolstoy painted by Ilya Repin in 1887; this was painted about 11 years before What is Art? was first published (Source: Wikimedia Commons).
In the early parts of the book, Tolstoy rejects art that is created for the sake of beauty alone and instead insists that art should serve a moral and social purpose. He argued that true art should be morally uplifting and accessible to all people, not just the elite. He saved his harshest critique for Wagner, but he even rejected Beethoven!
Somewhat ironically, Tolstoy, critical of the art of his time, also turned his attention to art criticism itself, arguing that the judgments of critics and academics were arbitrary and only served to uphold the exclusivity of high art rather than assess its true moral and emotional value.
He also goes a bit deeper and explains that art should have a spiritual truth as well. Although Tolstoy’s values were heavily influenced by ‘Christian values’, they could also be applied to universal human values like honesty, authenticity, and emotional connection.
Tolstoy outlined three essential qualities that make a work of art truly effective: particularity, clarity, and sincerity. When an artist achieves all three, they succeed in conveying their emotional experience to the audience. The emotional connection is what mattered most to Tolstoy.
How Tolstoy Proposed to Improve Art
Before we compare Roberts and Bunny, let’s look at Tolstoy’s criteria for what he considered meaningful art.
Particularity
Tolstoy argues that for a work of art to truly communicate an emotional experience, it must express something specific and personal, not vague or generalised. For example, if I was painting a sunset, I wouldn’t just paint ‘a pretty sunset’, I would paint the sunset that moved me the most.
‘The task of art is to make clear the inner life of the artist, so that others may share in it’ (Tolstoy).
Clarity
Art should get its emotion across clearly. It should be understandable, and good art, real art, is something anyone can connect with, no matter their background. If I was painting a beach scene and I wanted to convey loneliness, clarity is when that mood is unmistakable to the viewer without needing to explain it.
‘If a work of art does not bring people together through the same feeling, then it is not art at all’ (Tolstoy).
Sincerity
This one mattered most to Tolstoy. The artist has to genuinely feel what they’re trying to express. If I was painting the sunset, I’m not trying to paint a ‘perfect’ sunset, sincerity means honestly expressing my personal emotional response to that scene, without trying to copy what others expect a sunset should look like.
‘Art is an activity, the object of which is to communicate the artist’s feeling by means of the external signs he has called forth, and so to excite in the people who experience it the same feeling that the artist himself experienced’ (Tolstoy).
Through Tolstoy’s Eyes: Comparing Two Australians, Roberts and Bunny
Tom Roberts: Shearing the Rams (1890)
At the turn of the 19th century, Australian nationalism was in full swing and the first Australian brand of painting had emerged, dubbed the Heidelberg School. Tom Roberts, affectionally nicknamed 'Bulldog' because of his tenacity, was a key member. Figure 2 shows 'Shearing the Rams', one of the most famous Australian paintings to emerge during this time.
Figure 2: Shearing the Rams, painted by Tom Roberts in 1890 (National Gallery of Victoria).
The National Gallery of Victoria describe the painting as 'a response to the nationalistic sentiment that developed in Australia during the late nineteenth century... (it) reflects the emergence of a national identity defined through heroic rural activity and the economic importance of the wool industry' (Roberts, 1890, National Gallery of Victoria). I think Tolstoy would have approved.
Let's review the painting using Tolstoy's three criterion.
Particularity
Shearing the Rams definitely has particularity because the finished painting is based on a number of preliminary sketches Roberts completed on the spot at Brocklesby Station, Corowa, New South Wales, in the late spring of 1888; he also returned during the following two spring periods (shearing season) to work on the painting (National Gallery of Victoria).
Clarity
Shearing the Rams has a lot of clarity because the scene and the feeling are easy to understand. You can see the workers busy at their jobs and Roberts makes it clear what’s happening so anyone looking at it can immediately feel the scene he experienced.
Sincerity
The painting is sincere because Roberts really felt the scene he was painting. He wasn’t trying to make it look fancy or impress anyone, he was showing the hard work, the focus, and the energy of the shearers as he saw it. His own honest experience comes through in the painting, which is exactly what Tolstoy valued in sincere art.
Rupert Bunny: Summertime (1907)
Rupert Bunny was a highly successful painter during his lifetime. Born in Melbourne in 1864, he left for Europe at a young age to study art, like many Australian artists of his time. But unlike most, he managed to break into the Parisian art world, and regularly exhibited at the Paris Salon, one of the most prestigious art exhibitions in the world. He became the first Australian painter to win a medal at the Salon, and his paintings were bought by French museums, which was virtually unheard of for an Australian artist back then (National Gallery of Victoria, 2010).
Let's look at one of his works and critique it from Tolstoy's perspective.
Figure 3. Summertime by Rupert Bunny, exhibited at the New Salon in Paris in 1907 (Art Gallery of New South Wales).
Particularity
Bunny’s Summertime doesn’t really show particularity. It’s more of a general, decorative scene than a specific moment he actually experienced. You don’t get a sense of a real time or place, and I must admit I don’t think I’ve ever experienced summertime like this! From Tolstoy’s point of view, it’s missing the personal connection that gives art real emotional truth.
Clarity
When it comes to clarity, Summertime isn’t very strong. It’s a pretty, decorative painting, but it’s not really clear what Bunny is trying to make you feel. You can enjoy the colours and the composition, but the emotion behind it doesn’t come through the way Tolstoy thought it should.
Sincerity
Bunny’s Summertime doesn’t feel very sincere to me. It’s more about creating a pretty scene than showing how he actually felt. It looks polished and decorative, but you don’t really get a sense of a personal connection or real emotion, which is what Tolstoy thought made art truly sincere.
Conclusions: Rupert versus Bunny in the Eyes of Tolstoy
Looking at the two paintings through Tolstoy’s eyes, Shearing the Rams works really well. It’s particular because it shows a real shearing scene Roberts actually saw. It’s sincere because it comes from his own experience, and it’s clear: you can feel the energy of the moment. Tolstoy would have admonished Summertime because it’s more decorative than personal, the feeling isn’t clear, and it doesn’t seem like Bunny is honestly showing his own experience.
Applying Tolstoy: Reflections on My Work
Now, let’s look at one of my own paintings (see Figure 4 below). This pastel painting, completed in 2019, depicts my grandmother’s driveway. It brings back memories of hunting for caterpillars, backyard cricket games, flying paper planes, and just lazing around, the simple, good stuff in life. I titled it The Driveway of Dreams.
I would say that my painting strongly meets particularity, partially meets sincerity, but does not meet clarity.
Figure 4. Driveway of Dreams, 2019 (Private collection).
Particularity
From Tolstoy’s point of view, particularity is about showing something personal and specific. My painting of my grandmother’s driveway isn’t just any driveway, it’s the one where I spent hours playing cricket with my family, looking for caterpillars, and helping in the garden. It’s all the little memories and moments that make it special to me that give the painting its meaning.
Clarity
Tolstoy believed art should communicate emotion clearly. Some viewers might just see a colourful driveway and not connect with the memories or the sense of joy I felt. For example, there is no mention of backyard cricket or playing with paper aeroplanes. So in that sense, it doesn’t fully meet Tolstoy’s idea of clarity.
Sincerity
My painting shows my grandmother’s driveway and the flowers I loved there, but I have to admit it isn’t completely sincere. I made the flowers more colourful than they really were and therefore, I wasn’t just showing how I felt, I was also trying to make the painting look nice. That means it doesn’t fully meet Tolstoy’s idea of sincerity, which is about honestly expressing your true feeling.
According to Tolstoy's book, he thought true sincerity in art should express a moral or spiritual truth that others can connect with. My painting is honest about how I felt in my grandmother’s driveway, but it doesn’t really carry a wider moral or spiritual message, it’s just about my own experience. In that sense, it falls short of what Tolstoy would call fully sincere art.
Final thoughts
I’m a big believer in Art for Art’s Sake, I don’t think there’s anything wrong with painting beautiful things. But sometimes I wonder if painting purely for beauty is really sincere, and whether the emotion I’m trying to express actually comes through to the viewer.
Reading Tolstoy’s book also made me question if I’m living up to his expectations, or even if I should. Then again, who really cares what Tolstoy thinks?
I’d love to hear your thoughts, feel free to leave a comment below.
References
Baldwin, M., Harrison, C., & Wood, J. (Eds.). (2001). Art in theory 1815–1900: An anthology of changing ideas (2nd ed.). Blackwell.
National Gallery of Victoria. (2010). Rupert Bunny: Artist in Paris [Exhibition catalogue]. National Gallery of Victoria.
Roberts, T. (1890). Shearing the rams [oil on canvas on composition board]. National Gallery of Victoria (Accession No. 4654-3). https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/explore/collection/work/2920/ (Accessed: 22/9/25)
Woollard, B. (2025, June 18). Tolstoy’s Christian anarchism. JSTOR Daily.